Title page, The Defence of Robert Hodgson, Esq. (London: Printed in the Year, 1779).

Map of the Mosquito Shore by H.G. Higley C.E. (1894), in Karl Offen, “Maps and the Teaching of Latin American History,” Hispanic American Historical Review (2012).

“Panoramic view of Black River” by Thomas Strangeways, K. G. C. in A Sketch of the Mosquito Shore, including the Territory of Poyais, &c. (Edinburgh: Sold by William Blackwood; London: T. Caddell, 1822).

Portrait by Sir Joshua Reynolds (c. 1771-1773), National Portrait Gallery, London.

Letter from Vassa to leading abolitionist, Thomas Hardy. Here Vassa signs the letter “Gustavus Vassa, the African.” National Archives, Kew: TS 24/12/2.

Bridgetown, Barbados (c. 1880)
Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York.

Igbo priest (seated) with his osu (“juju slave”), Orsu, West Isuama Igbo, n.d. The Osu Caste System in Igboland discourages social interaction and marriage with a group of people, referred to as Osu (outcasts) who are seen as inferior to the Nwadiala (free-borns). Photo by G.I. Jones, Photographic Archive, Southern Illinois University.

The Death of General James Wolfe on the Plains of Abraham, Quebec, September 13, 1759.
Painting by Benjamin West (c. 1770)
Study Collection, National Army Museum, London.

HMS Namur during the Battle of Lagos Bay by Richard Perret (1806). Personal collection of Chris Hoida.

View of the Thames Showing the Savoy, by William James (1765), Parham House, Sussex. 

View of the Thames Showing Westminster, by William James (1765), Parham House, Sussex

An Igbo man with facial marks of nobility known as ichi in G. T. Basden’s Among the Ibos of Nigeria (London: Seeley, Service & Co., 1921), 184.

A photo of a man with ichi marks in Northcote W. Thomas’s Anthropological Report on the Ibo-Speaking People of Nigeria (London: Harrison and Sons, 1913), Plate XVII.

A letter from Ambrose Lace to Thomas Jones, regarding the two merchants from Calabar, dated 11 November 1773. Floyd E. Risvold Collection: American Expansion & Journey West, Spink Shreves Gallery, Dallas, Africa and Slavery, Lot 900.

“Calabar – Showing different wards: Creek Town, Duke Town, Old Town, Henshaw Town.”  Map of the Cross River Estuary, Calabar River (1820), Unknown Author.  

Anti-Slavery Medallion designed by Josiah Wedgwood (1787), Wedgwood Manufactory, Art Institute Chicago. This medallion was adopted as the seal for the Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade.

The Clarkson chest and its contents, Wisbech & Fenland Museum. Thomas Clarkson used the chest as a “travelling museum” in his campaign against the slave trade.

Portrait by Samuel William Reynolds (1841), National Portrait Gallery, London.

Wedgwood Factory, Etruria, Staffordshire by John Wakefield (n.d.), Wedgwood Museum, Barlaston, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire.

“Am I Not a Man and a Brother?” Medallion designed by William Hackwood (1787) for Wedgwood Company for the British anti-slavery campaign, Brooklyn Museum.

Stowage of the British slave ship Brookes under the regulated slave trade act of 1788. Plymouth Chapter of the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade (1788), United States Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, Washington.

18th century tobacco label for The Virginia Planters Best Tobacco. Unknown artist, n.d., Rockefeller Library, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, Virginia.

Plantation Yard and Slave Village, Jamaica, 1758. Unknown artist (n.d.), National Library of Jamaica, Kingston.

"Advertisement for Sale of Newly Arrived Africans, Charleston, July 24, 1769.” Image source: Slavery Images: A Visual Record of the African Slave Trade and Slave Life in the Early African Diaspora.

Engraving of Covent Garden by Sutton Nicholls (c. 1720), Library of Congress, Washington.

Watercolour of Holy Trinity Church, Clapham Common by an unknown artist (1809), Lambeth Archives, London. This was the church of the “Clapham Sect,” a group of evangelical Anglicans whom successfully campaigned for the abolition of slavery in the British commonwealth.

Industrial city in England, late 18th century. Image source: www.historycrunch.com

Moravian (United Brethren) Mission Station, St. Croix, Danish West Indies (1768) in C. G. A. Oldendorp, Geschichte der Mission der Evangelischen Bruder auf den Caraibischen Inseln S. Thomas, S. Croix und S. Jan (Leipzig: Weidmanns Erben und Reich, 1777).

The Fredensborg II heading for St. Croix with a cargo of slaves (1788) in Leif Svalesen, The Slave Ship Fredensborg (Kingston: Ian Randle publishers, 2000), 104.

A series of Igbo-Ukwu bronze sculptures from the Nri region. The Igbo people were known for their bronze masks, Mbari houses, and mud sculptures. Art & Life in Africa Collection, The University of Iowa Museum.

Igbo people thatching with palm leaf mats in G. T. Basden, Among the Ibos of Nigeria (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott, 1921), 168.

An African merchant selling slaves to a European in Isabelle Aguet, A Pictorial History of the Slave Trade (Geneva: Editions Minerva, 1971), 18.

Image by William J. Simmons (1887), General Research and Reference Division, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York.

Dwellings in Bluefields on the Mosquito Shore by an unknown artist (c. 1845). Image Source: www.wayfarersbookshop.com

Fruits of the castor-oil plant, or castor bean (Ricinus communis). Image source: Encyclopædia Britannica

Castor oil plant. Image source:
Encyclopædia Britannica

A view of Freetown in Thomas Masterman Winterbottom, An account of the native Africans in the neighbourhood of Sierra Leone, to which is added an account of the present state of medicine among them (London: Printed by C. Whittingham, 1803).

View of Smyrna (Izmir) by an anonymous painter (c. 1657-1723), Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.

Smyrna in the late 17th century by Charles Vastiau (1690), Koninklijke Bibliotheek, The Hague.

Leaded bronze pendant of a human face with forehead and cheek scarification bears, by an Igbo male artist, Igbo Isaiah at Igbo-Ukwu, Nigeria, 8th-10th century CE. National Museum, Lagos. Photo by Dirk Bakker, University of Iowa.

Engraving of Black country in England, West of Birmingham in Samuel Griffin, Guide to the Iron Trade of Great Britain (London: Published for the Proprietor, 1873).

Bronze skeuomorph of a calabash by an Igbo male artist, presumed to be from Igbo Isaiah at Igbo Ukwu, Nigeria, 8th-10th century CE. © Trustees of the British Museum, London.

Igbo people in traditional attire, 19th century. Photo by G. I. Jones, Photographic Archive,  Southern Illinois University.

"Olaudah Equiano – African, slave, author, abolitionist" by Christy Symington (2007), Parliamentary Art Collection, Palace of Westminster, London.

Portrait of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach by Reip, engraved by Ambroise Tardieu (1752), The British Museum, London.

Title page, The Defence of Robert Hodgson, Esq. (London: Printed in the Year, 1779).

Map of the Mosquito Shore by H.G. Higley C.E. (1894), in Karl Offen, “Maps and the Teaching of Latin American History,” Hispanic American Historical Review (2012).

“Panoramic view of Black River” by Thomas Strangeways, K. G. C. in A Sketch of the Mosquito Shore, including the Territory of Poyais, &c. (Edinburgh: Sold by William Blackwood; London: T. Caddell, 1822).

Portrait by Sir Joshua Reynolds (c. 1771-1773), National Portrait Gallery, London.

Letter from Vassa to leading abolitionist, Thomas Hardy. Here Vassa signs the letter “Gustavus Vassa, the African.” National Archives, Kew: TS 24/12/2.

Bridgetown, Barbados (c. 1880)
Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York.

Igbo priest (seated) with his osu (“juju slave”), Orsu, West Isuama Igbo, n.d. The Osu Caste System in Igboland discourages social interaction and marriage with a group of people, referred to as Osu (outcasts) who are seen as inferior to the Nwadiala (free-borns). Photo by G.I. Jones, Photographic Archive, Southern Illinois University.

The Death of General James Wolfe on the Plains of Abraham, Quebec, September 13, 1759.
Painting by Benjamin West (c. 1770)
Study Collection, National Army Museum, London.

HMS Namur during the Battle of Lagos Bay by Richard Perret (1806). Personal collection of Chris Hoida.

Robert Lowth by John Keyse Sherwin, after Robert Edge Pine, line engraving, circa 1777. National Portrait Gallery, London.

Frontpage of William Dillwyn and John Lloyd, The Case of our Fellow Creatures, the Oppressed Africans, Respectfully Recommended to the Serious Consideration of the Legislature of Great Britain by the People Called Quakers, published by James Phillips (1783)

Frontpage of Thomas Clarkson, An Essay on the Slavery and Commerce of the Human Species, Particularly the African, published by John Phillips (1786)

National Portrait Gallery, London Caricature of Thomas Steele by James Gillray, published by Samuel William Fores; hand-coloured etching, published 2 June 1787 

Map of an estate for sale in the Parish of Saint Anthony, Montserrat, by Vaughan Hards and Leifchild, 1870; Library of Congress Geography and Map Division, Washington, D.C

Le port St George, dans l‘isle de la Grenade (The port of St. George, in the Island of Grenada) by Jeanna Francoise Ozanne, etching, circa 1780. [The British Museum, London.]

Captain the Honourable Augustus Keppel, 1725-86, A full-length portrait of Keppel after his shipwreck on the Maidstone in 1747 by Joshua Reynolds, circa 1752.  [Royal Museum, Greenwich.]

Attack of the island of Belle-Isle by the English Admiral Keppel: [print] Smith, J. (1761) - National Library of France

Portrait of George Pitt, 1^st Baron Rivers (1721-1803) by Thomas Gainsborough, oval · Victoria & Albert Museum, London, UK

Chris Brown, “The British Province of Senegamiba, 1758-1784: Colonial Failure on the West African Coast,” Queen’s University, 2018

Robert Wedderburn in, Satirical print, A peep into the city of London Tavern. By an Irish amateur, 21 August 1817, Print made by George Cruikshank, Published in London, Representation of Robert Wedderburn, from The British Museum

Mary Wollstonecraft by John Opie, oil on canvas, circa 1797. [National Portrait Gallery, London.]

Probable copy of the portrait gifted to Law and Susannah Atkinson by Vassa.

Olaudah Equiano ("Gustavus Vassa") by Daniel Orme, stipple engraving, March 1789. National Portrait Gallery, London.

Panorama of Savannah by Fermin Cerveau, 1837, Georgia Historical Society https://www.nps.gov/articles/savannah-georgia-the-lasting-legacy-of-colonial-city-planning-teaching-with-historic-places.htm

An engraved view of Portsmouth Harbour from the Gosport shoreline by Samuel & Nathaniel Buck, 1749; The West Prospect of Portsmouth in Hampshire, Richard Martin Gallery

View of Savannah. Library of Congress, Miscellaneous Items in Hight Demand collection, Prints and Photographs Division, LC-USZ62-102153

Portrait of John Fielding by Nathanial Hone, oil on canvas, circa 1762.National Portrait Gallery, London.

“Ile de Montserrat. – Dessin de E. de Bérard, d’après une photographie. ”

The island of Montserrat in the Caribbean Sea, 19th century by E. de Bérard, circa 1860.AKG-Images, United Kingdom. 

View of Savannah, Kean Collectionhttps://images.fineartamerica.com/images/artworkimages/mediumlarge/2/vista-of-colonial-savannah-georgia-kean-collection.jpg

Carte de l’isle de la Jamaique by Bellin, Jacques Nicolas, 1758; Library of Congress Geography and Map Division, Washington, D.C. 

Plymouth, Montserrat by S. Low, Marston, Searle & Rivington, 1889. New York Public Library Digital Collections, New York.

“Planting the Sugar-Cane” (1820), etching, engraving , watercolor, image depicting enslaved Africans suffering on a sugar cane plantation. National Maritime Museum, Infant School Society Depository, London.

St. Peter’s Church, Nottingham

The grave of 18th century anti-slavery campaigner, Peter Peckard. Published on Peterborough Telegraph website in 2020.

William Burke (1728x30–1798) by Sir Joshua Reynolds circa 1778. 

Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.